Monday, September 30, 2019

Intercultural Communications Essay

Whale Rider is a contemporary fairy film, which depicts our celebration to our spiritual bond together with our natural environment. In particular it shows the celebration of our spiritual bond with the ocean, and its creatures the whales. It has its basis on a Maori legend, transcends local space and time. The film evokes concerns as to the relationship that exists between human with the natural world. It also depicts the role women play in the spiritual traditions as can be seen in the story of Pai (Keisha Castle Hughes) who is eleven years old. The tale takes place within the heart of Maori tribe. It is filmed on authentic tribal property in Whangara on the east coast of New Zealand North Island. There is participation of the Ngati Konohi elders and other members of the tribe. Niki Caro who is the screenwriter lived within the tribe before the film was released (Farrell, 299-300). He created a respectful and exuberant depiction of a story that is unique. From the beginning of the film the viewer is immersed in Pai’s world, with active imagination that she has, her child like realm and also the ageless wisdom, which corresponds to the call of ancient whales. This is what draws her to be able to fulfill her destiny. Her destiny has its roots in conflict and there is demand for intuitive wisdom, visionary actions and also a brave wisdom to be able to accomplish this destiny. Her mother and her twin brother passed away during childbirth. She was named after Paikea who was a legendary ancestor who arrived in New Zealand carried on back of a whale. Pai father left his community with great grief and feeling incapable to offer a son who would continue succession of chiefs. He starts a new life by undertaking a course in fine arts in Germany. Pai is taken care of by her grand parents. In the process there is a strong bond that is formed between Pai and her grandfather Pako. The grandfather watches her and realized that she had great interest to change the traditional ways (Reinhardt, pg 10-11). The grandfather has the aim to preserve the succession of the tribe and makes an appointment of a male to replace him. Despite this Pako has to make struggles in order to keep the tradition of the society alive. There is social and spiritual crisis in the society. There is also disintegration of the community because there is no one to succeed him in the society. In order to be able to revive the ancient lore he starts a school where boys are taught native teachings on martial arts. Girls and women are not allowed to attend this school. However, Pai breaks this traditional because of the irresistible force by her many attempts to participate the classes which were intended to be attended by male warriors. The hopes by Pako to find the next leader weakens as all the boys fail in their final test. Pai is protected by her grandmother because of her rebellious character. The grandmother recognizes her inborn affinity with the ancient myths that existed in the society. There is a beautiful scene which depicts the wise woman and the girl sitting gazing on the ocean. The ocean is lit by the radiance of the full moon (Rountree, pg 98-100). This shows the mysteries that women have in their spirituality and also reflects the special bond that women have with the moon and the sea. All through the film the ocean looks as an animated entity shimmering in rich shades of blue, grey and turquoise. It reflects the sky, the moonlight, sunlight a mediating body that connects the people with their spiritual origins. The whales and the ocean depict the fusion of nature and spirit. Therefore, when a group of whales is washed near the shore their destiny is metaphorically connected with the survival of the tribe. As can be seen from the film the conservatism and rigidity of the male dominated traditions makes the tribe to be disintegrated. Even with the support of his people Pako is cannot save the whales. There is mourning of the revered creatures and tribes mythical lifeline. There is no one in from the tribe who dares to envision what is to come in future. The luxurious photography which is taken underwater and enhanced by digital effects and models together with the energizing rhythms of performance, editing and sounds depicts the transformation of Pai into a whale rider. Pai’s body works together with the ancient creature. His soul makes communication with creature’s awareness. She is able to awaken the dying whale ride ion its back and guides the herd to go back to the depths of the ocean. She entrusts her fate to the ocean. She does not fear to die and she is guided by an instinct and insight beyond time. The whales and the ocean responds by bringing Pai back to the shores of the ocean with the tide. There is a new leader who has been born and there is also beginning of a new era. Whale Rider provides a powerful message of hope and watching this film provides a healing experience. It is a unique cinematic vision which gives an impression to the creative potential of the female spirit. The film depicts the theme of female empowerment in an ordinary way but the way that the context in which it is depicted is unique. Just like many tribal societies the Maoris are patriarchal. In this society the thought of a female leader is not thinkable, and also goes against the traditions of the society. The film reveals what might happen if a girl appear to have been talented with mystical capabilities of becoming a leader or a chief in that kind of a society. The film provides a more positive point of view showing that despite the fact that change is necessary it is not supposed to destroy culture and tradition of a society. Pai aim is not to destroy the customs and traditions of the society which have existed for more than one thousand years but to reshape it and continues with the same traditions and customs. Leonard, pg 15-22). The film looks like a study of sociology but this is only its background. The film is uplifting as it shows a girl who defies any odds to be able to achieve her goals. There is use of humor in order to keep the tone of the overall film light although there are some moments of deeper heartfelt pathos. The relationships and characters in the film are three dimensional. The most rewarding relationship in this film is that of Pai and her grandfather. This is shown especially at the start of the film where we see that the grandfather has genuine care for her granddaughter. For the daughter all what she wants is to earn respect from the grandfather. This is depicted as she gives a speech dedicated to her grandfather. Keisha is just as wonderful as Pai. This is because she shows unflagging spirit and great determination. The afro mentioned speech is the best scene shown by the actress. She presents the speech in an amazing way and even sheds tears. Koro is depicted as a stern and humorless man but not a villain. He is depicted as a man of strong values who cannot let go the rigidity of his upbringing (Reinhardt, pg 10-11). When Koro starts a new school in order to supplement the secular education of the young boys, Pai wishes to join the school too but she is rebuffed harshly in her attempts. She shows depth of character as she simultaneously quest for equality. She is also aware that her grandfather would not be willing to make her acquire her desires because of his strong attachment to patriarchal values. Her close relationship with her grandmother who lived a life that is universally recognizable to Americans provides warmth and support to Pai in her quests for equality (Leonard, pg 15-22). The film has is thrilling as it unfolds seamingly with Maori music and rituals which bridges the spoken language. Whale Rider never becomes a saccharine because it is partly a straight tale and also partly a gripping mystical fable. Just like in many modern films the music and the Maori songs complement but do not compete with the dialogue which is a welcome change in films. The film whale rider has a different and a more powerful approach. In the film there are no whites and there are only children t-shirts and some music which comes from a boom box that suggest the encroaching force of the majority who had control (Rountree, pg 98-99).

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Unfortunate Incident At Your Restaurant

Dear manager of Bella NapoliI am writing to you because of an unfortunate incident yesterday at noontime. You see, what happened was that my son and I wanted to enjoy a beverage and maybe something to eat, but we couldn’t get a table. According to your waiter, all tables were reserved. This, I am sure wasn’t the case, as the restaurant was totally empty†¦Therefore I am writing this complaint to you, as I don’t want to be treated that way. I was actually in a good mood but that incompetent waiter practically ruined my day. I was speaking Italy, but the rude waiter apparently did not understand it. Nevertheless, I wanted to point out to you, that one of your waiters had bad manners, and that I find this unacceptable.I – before this incident – had a good impression of your restaurant, but unless I am going to be given a proper and formal apology, this was my last time at your restaurant. Furthermore I will spread the word, this will be very unplea sant for your restaurant and will affect your sales.I hope I have made myself very clear. The formal apology must be given within 14 days or else the word will spread and I will consider legal actions.I look forward to hearing from you soon,Yours faithfullyJohn Collins

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Cultural Identity Journal Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Cultural Identity Journal - Research Paper Example Having been in the United States for nine years now, my job as a yoga instructor paved the way for me to belief in the benefits accorded by meditation. I feel yoga sets us on a journey of self discovery, where we no longer need to continue searching for happiness, we realize it is already within us. Still, I do not lose track of my purpose for living and that when I die, the life I lived would be judged and would be decided on the fate of my eternal existence. II. VALUES I value relationships more than any material blessings. I treasure the times I spent with my family in Poland, especially the bond that we shared and the happiness felt by the mere presence of family members. My primary values are sharing my talents to others so that others’ lives would be enriched by their interaction with me. This would enable me to attain a sense of worth through my personal contribution to life: by doing good in the tasks and responsibilities as an interpreter and a yoga instructor. I hone stly believe that relationships are worth dying for: that we strive hard in life for the benefit of those we love. The people we love dearly are worth protecting more than any material things, which we ultimately leave on earth when we die. III. CULTURAL PATTERNS A. Application of Hofstedes's Five Dimensions I am basically a COLLECTIVIST. Poles often form extended families - with grandparents who take care of grandchildren while parents are working. In many instances children live in the same town or neighborhood where the parents and grandparents live. Polish people, especially young, are very attached to their parents, family and home in Poland and feel unsecure on their own. As explained in Hofstede’s dimension, collectivism manifests finding â€Å"societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyaltyâ₠¬  (Itim International par. 2). B. UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE Poles are basically averse of taking risks and therefore manifest high levels of UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE. Polish society is not that mobile as American or western European societies from many reasons and partly because of this cultural dimension, therefore the unemployment is high in some areas of Poland but people are not willing or cannot move somewhere else. I believe that I am more than an exception to the rule since I bravely took the risk of living away from my family and pursuing opportunities in America. C. POWER DISTANCE I also believe that there are inequalities in societies but that the roles that each person plays determine their power. Therefore in terms of the POWER DISTANCE INDEX, I believe that power and inequality are matters of perspectives. I treat people of higher authority with due respect but I do not acknowledge that they are better or more authoritative than me. I contend that it is their roles and respo nsibilities that require people to classify them to belong to higher or lower levels in an organizational hierarchy, for example; but their inner self and category as a member of the universal world is just the same as mine. D. MASCULINITY versus FEMININITY In terms of defining MASCULINITY versus FEMININITY, I still believe that although contemporary societies exhibit more equality in gender, still more societies are

Friday, September 27, 2019

Project and operations management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Project and operations management - Essay Example Several external factors however are of concern when it comes to developing new products for the company (The Times 100, 1995). Such factors may include the need to develop low carbon products, increasing energy security and addressing the impacts on global warming. The research and development for the company operates on a model of push and pull where airs out to manufacturers their new developments so as to drive new technological innovations and the pull where the focus shifts towards market demands; what their customers want. The company’s major challenge is mainly technical or economic. With increasing complexity in technology, then the more people are needed by the company to overcome this challenge (The Times 100, 1995). But it has proved to be another challenge for the company to recruit more skilled workers that will be able to remain competent and enable ARM maintains its position in the market. Executive summary A project is typically a collaborative enterprise (Blu m, 1986). It usually involves research that is conducted frequently, involving a carefully planned research design that sets to achieve a given aim. Projects are social systems within organizations that are constituted by teams to accomplish given tasks within a given period of time (Spottydog, 2003). A project is usually conducted by school going and university students or by organizations. For school going students it may require the students to undertake fact finding and analysis from either secondary sources of information or from empirically gathering data (Yuan-Yi, 2001). The final output is usually in the form of a dissertation. The dissertation will contain sections of the whole projects inception, inquiry methods analysis, finding conclusions and most at times would require them to make suitable recommendations (Konecny, 2006). On the other hand for organizations it will consist of a temporary task that is undertaken in order to create products that are unique and satisfact ory services many at times in pursuit of satisfying the growing and changing demands of consumers such as the case of ARM mentioned above. (Morris Peter, 2007). Therefore the objectives of the given project will determine the target status at the end of the whole project. This will be necessary to achieve the planned benefits or the aims of the project. For example, in many countries engineering projects are specifically defined by legislation and requires that any engineering project should be carried out by only the registered engineers and companies for constructing buildings, industrial facilities, and transportation of infrastructure and such like other duties (Pinto, 2001). In such cases the project scope will be well defined within a contract from owners of the project and the engineering and construction companies. This kind of project has two major phases which are design and construction. Design phase involves drawing and calculations and the next which is the final phase will be to send the project plan to a developer who will do the construction work (Archibald, 1992). Project Brief A project in its self if a process and any process usually involves a set of interrelated actions and activities that have to be carried out in order to achieve a pre-specified result or services. The

Thursday, September 26, 2019

International human rights law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International human rights law - Essay Example This paper studies the principles and concepts of human rights laws, reviews the strengths and weaknesses of the law, analyses the reasons that justify the implementation of these laws and finally validates the argument that human rights law must be made an international law. Further, the paper discusses the major functions of the international court, studying its efficiency through a case study. Human rights are viewed differently by different communities around the world and there might be differences in the rights that are believed to inherently be available to ever human being irrespective of any bias. The nature of human rights however continues to be agreeable in most communities. It is in view of the general good of the people that human rights laws are written and on implementation are sure to bring to all humans a set of inherent rights that will enable them to have better hold on what they deserve. The various aspects of the human rights law are discussed here. There are thirty articles that form the human rights law and are specific in addressing the various rights that a person may be entitled to, providing them with basic rights to their existence. Articles one and two is about the independency of the human rights law from aspects such as jurisdiction, religion, language, sex or any other discrimination. Article three specifically talks of the right to liberty, life and security, the three basic rights that every human ought to have. The fourth article addresses the right against slavery and the fifth specifies the law against torture and inhuman forms of punishment and treatment. Articles six, seven and eight are about the constitutional rights of individuals. It talks of the right that all individuals have in the court of justice and that they are entitled to recognition in the court of law equally, without any

What is Federalism Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

What is Federalism - Assignment Example This research will begin with the statement that these great United States were founded on the idealism and dreams of a people who dreamed of a federal society governed by the rules of freedom and democracy. The present research has identified that we live in times when the sacrifices of our forefathers helped to shape the nation that has nurtured and protected our forebears and will hopefully, also be called home by our successors. Yet for all the dreams and aspirations that we have as a nation, for all the history that helped to create the United States of America, we know very little about the federal form of government that governs our existence. The author has rightly presented that we acknowledge the fact that our country has been run under a federal system of government for over 200 years. It is a system of governance that works for the American people because it has its basis deeply rooted within our lawful constitution and has continued to evolve with the changing times that our country goes through. Yet it is highly doubtful that the average American will know what federalism is all about and how it functions in terms of governance of our country. It was Roche who explained that â€Å"federal ­ism refers to the division of au ­thority and function between and among the national government and the various state governments. But it has come to possess a wider meaning in American political his ­tory†.

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Medicare and Medicaid Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Medicare and Medicaid - Essay Example Part B covers: Eighty percent of the approved charges are paid by Medicare Part B after annual deductible is met. It is optional to enroll for Medicare Part B and the Medicare program stays constant from state to state. [1] [2] Medicaid: It means financial aid to pay for care. It is an assistance program which is funded both by the federal government and the individual states. It helps individuals of all ages with low income and medical costs and the eligibility requirements vary from state to state. People who have Medicare coverage can also qualify for Medicaid as they have low income and Medicaid covers their deductibles and co-payments which would have to be paid by them if they were not under Medicaid. It does not cover any kind of custodial care. It covers inpatient and outpatient hospital services, laboratory and x-ray services, physician services, nursing facility services, home health services and services of a nurse-midwife. Every state program includes some prescription drug coverage. There are special rules for people who apply for Medicaid for long-term care: Medicare should modernize and update its package of services according to customers needs because customers try alternative medicines and cross geographical boundaries to get the treatment. Therefore in order to satisfy them, changes have to be made. Patients are troubled with the complexity, paperwork, and regulatory

Monday, September 23, 2019

Publi Pension Replacement Rates Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Publi Pension Replacement Rates - Essay Example Even the marital status is a point of concern for some countries. The earnings level of the worker is also taken into account. This level dictates the amount of their contribution. The duration of membership of a worker in the pension plan is factored in in the replacement rate computation. Another cause of the variance is the type of employment, whether it is full-time or part-time. The public pension replacement rate was a major contributing factor in the debt burden of Greece. The average earner with a full career in an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) country, of which Greece belongs, has a pension replacement rate of 58.7% of earnings (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2007). However, in Greece, the replacement rate was at a high of 96% of earnings (OECD, 2007). This rate is considered to be very high. In 2010, Greece’s pension system had approximately 400 billion euros or $509 billion in unfunded liabilities (Oxford Analytica, 2010). The excessively high replacement rate forced the Greek government to make emergency grants to meet the pension outlays (Oxford Analytica, 2010). Nektarios describes the Greek public pension system as one which is â€Å"highly segmented and complex, containing over 300 funds, with many different regulations for pension rights† (n.d.). Because of these chara cteristic of the public pension plan, it was difficult for the government to manage. One proof that the public pension replacement rate contributed largely on the debt problem of Greece are the reforms in the pension plan that were instituted by the EU and the IMF. Some of these reforms that were dictated upon on Greece include introduction of a unified statutory retirement age of 65 by December 2013; the gradual increase in the minimum contribution period for retirement; and the reduction of pension benefits to be based on the pensioners average pay over their working lives

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Organizational Commitment and Organizational Effectiveness Term Paper

Organizational Commitment and Organizational Effectiveness - Term Paper Example Organizational change is primarily structural in character and it is designed to bring about alterations in organizational structure, methods, and processes. (Nilanjan, S et al,3 2006) Change is endemic to all organizations operating in business markets which involve improvements on current ways of doing things, of fine-tuning operations and implementing incremental changes on standard operating procedures. (Patrick D, and Constantine A, 2009)4 According to Whybrow (2007,p.5)5 it is necessary to act in times of immediate change, no matter how nasty it may seem or how much it impacts on staff or colleagues. In view of the changing nature of business and risks involved in it which is evident through the recession and economic depression occurring time and again challenging the business policies of the top leaders, change is necessary to face new challenges of every facet like accounting, technology, management, etc. There are certain factors that contribute to the change process in an organization like internal forces which include financial constraints, the need to do more with less, cross-functional teams, mergers and acquisitions, and empowered workers, etc. and external forces like new workforce demographics, changing expectations about quality, productivity, and customer satisfaction along with new technologies (APQC, 1999).6 The transformation of the bankrupt organization like Chrysler in 1970s to profitability which was possible due to the effective leadership of Iacocca, who revamped the internal politics and systems, changed the management structure, trimmed tens of thousands of employees, won concessions from UAW and transforming the company loser stigma of government bailout into positive cultural shift. It is pertinent to mention here that organizational change is triggered by an event which indicates the need for change like bankruptcy, in the case of Chrysler. However, it is assumed that change is followed by mixed reactions which provide positive i mpetus for change along with negative resistance from individuals and the organizations like technical systems, political systems and cultural systems (Pagan, 20087 and Rashid, Sambasivan & Rahman, 2003)8 The present paper discusses the role of culture and commitment to organizational change and provides some recommendation to maintain the commitment in the change process. Culture is often defined as that which is shared by and unique to a given organization or group and is an integrating mechanism, the social or normative glue that holds together a potentially diverse group of organizational members. (Warwick Organizational Behavior Staff, 2001, p.322)9 Smircich (cited in Iivari, n.d)10 analyzed different conceptions of organizational culture in relation to anthropological schools which have been conceived either as a variable or as a root metaphor for conceptualizing organization which is further divided into two areas: organizations have been regarded as cultures or having a cult ure. It is further mentioned that culture contributes to the overall balance and effectiveness of an organization.

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Kant Ethics Essay Example for Free

Kant Ethics Essay Introduction Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher born in 1724 and died in 1804. He is considered one of the most influential people on modern philosophy for his intensive research in the subject. This paper will discuss various articles written by Kant and analyze his thoughts on deeds that are right and deeds that are morally wrong. It will finally discuss importance of motives and duty of morality as illustrated by Kant’s work. Discussion Kant believed that there is no good that can emerge from the world apart from a good will (Kant, 1998). He said that without good will, qualities that are good and desirable become useless. This is because the person yielding these qualities may at times lack the fundamental will to implement and portray them. He called this lack of good will as bad character. He continued to say that when good will is not present, then Power, honor, health and the overall welfare, contentment and happiness will usually mess with the mind of the person and they will start pretending and believing lies created in their mind. Good will, according to Kant, can be facilitated by application of various qualities. However, these qualities may have no inherent absolute value, but constantly presume a good will, which succeeds the esteem that we simply have for them, not permitting us to consider them as extremely good. He attempted to identify the primary maxims of motives, which people are required to achieve. Kant did not base his opinions on claims about any subjective perception of the good, preferences, moral beliefs or regularly shared desires that people may have. Kant also recognized good will as the only absolute good; he refused to accept that the notion of good will could be established by referring to a tangible good. He believed that nothing could be a moral principle, if it was not initially a principle for everyone. According to Kant, morality starts with the denial of non-globalized principles. This idea was devised as a demand, which Kant termed as the Moral Law. He grouped the maxims in a manner that mediators could refer as â€Å"acting on the only adage that one can, and likewise will, just like an international law†. To clarify the point, Kant gave an example of an agent who gives false promises. He adds to this by saying that the agent’s action in this case does not fit to be termed as an international law. He explains that if the agent was hypothetical, then he would take part in the final outcome and this would make him stop his behavior of giving false promises (Kant, 2009). It is therefore clear that the principle of giving false promises cannot be categorized under universally shared principles. According to Kant, the principle of repudiating false promises is vital and the maxim of giving false morally forbidden. Kant is different from many utilitarian’s who regard false promises as wrong due to their adverse effects. He considers this principle as wrong since it cannot be used internationally. Kant identified two ethical modes of assessment, one of them being the fact that human beings have a high probability of evaluating the maxims adopted by agents. He asserted that if human beings had the capacity of evaluating such maxims, then principles with moral worth would come into being, since humans could decline immoral principles. He stated, â€Å"Those who accept principles that are not universal, have principles that are morally unworthy†. He considered those holding morally worth policies as working out of duty and said that human beings lack knowledge concerning the maxims of one another. Kant added to this by saying that people usually deduce the underlying principles or maxims of agents from the pattern of their actions, though no pattern identifies a unique principle. He gave the example of a genuinely honest shopkeeper by saying that his actions are not different from those of a shopkeeper who is reluctantly honest. Kant said that both shopkeepers deal justly out of an aspiration for a good reputation in business and would cheat if given the opportunity. Thus for common reasons, human beings usually do more than is of their concern with outer compliance to principles of duty, instead of paying attention to claims that an action was done out of such a principle. Kant discussed the relationship between principles of morality and people’s real inclinations and desires (Mac Intyre, 1981). He built the political insinuations of Categorical Imperative, which consists of constitution of the republic and value for freedom, particularly of speech and religion. He linked this with individual happiness which according to him can indirectly be viewed as an obligation. This is because one’s dissatisfaction with the wants of another might turn out to be a great lure to the wrongdoing of duty (O’Neill, 1991). He viewed this from another perspective and claimed that most men possess the strongest tendency to happiness. At this point, Kant gave the example of a gouty patient, who can make a choice of what he likes, and endure whatever suffering that comes with it. If he does this, he does not forego enjoying the present time to a probably wrong expectation of happiness believed to be experienced in good health (Kant, 1994). Kant states that, â€Å"an action from duty has its moral worth not in the aim that is supposed to be attained by it, but rather in the maxim in accordance with which it is resolved upon; thus that worth depends not on the actuality of the object of the action but merely on the principle of the volition† (ONeill, 1991). The moral worth of a deed does not lie in the result anticipated from it, nor in the action or maxim which needs to make use of its intention from the expected result. In relation to the discussed effects, the endorsement of other people’s happiness could be caused by other reasons (Beck, 1960). Conclusion Significance of motives and the role of duty in morality Motives can either be of good or bad intentions. They often influence one’s roles of duty. The morality of duty is relative to the law and is therefore compared to the morality of religion. It, therefore, does not criticize man for not making full use of his life or by not doing good. He states that, â€Å"There is nothing possible to think of anywhere in the world, or indeed anything at all outside it, that can be held to be good without limitation, excepting only a good will† (ONeill, 1991). Instead, it criticizes man for not respecting the fundamental principles and necessities required in life. A good example is the moral rule that man should not kill, since this does not have much to do with aspiration but the recognition that if one kills, he has not realized his duty of morality. I do not agree with Kant on the importance of motives and the role of duty in morality. This is because Kant only points out principles of ethics, but the same principles are so abstract that they can’t guide motives. Thus, his theory of the role of duty in morality is not motivating. He does not also give a full set of instructions to be followed. Kant lays emphasis on the appliance of maxims to cases that involve deliberation and judgment. He does insist that maxims must be abstract which can only guide individual decisions. The moral life is all about finding ways of good motives that meet all the obligations and breach no moral prohibitions. There is no procedure for identifying any motives. However, the role of duty in morality begins by ensuring that the precise acts that people bear in mind are not in line with deeds on principles of duty. References Beck, L. W. (1960). A Commentary on Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kant, I. (1998). Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kant, I. (2009). Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals. London: Thomas Kings mill Abbot. Kant, I. (1994). On a Supposed Right to Lie from Altruistic Motives. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ONeill, O. (1991). Kantian Ethics. In A Companion to Ethics. Blackwell: Oxford. MacIntyre, A. (1981). After Virtue. London: Duckworth.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Designing and Implementing E-procurement

Designing and Implementing E-procurement CHAPTER ONE: Background Study Overview The project is designing and implementing e-procurement on business-to-business transactions, it first identifies current procurement process and explores how to implement procurement that involves mainstay drivers and problems of e-procurement system usage and investigate the effect on the performance of the Ministry in terms of e-government and transparency in the Federal Ministry of Science and technology. The solution essentially involves in creating all the requirement details/ specs, of a tender to be floated electronically, in parameterized form; so that subsequent evaluation comparative chart preparation exercises could be automated to a large extent. The term procurement can be referred to as the buying of tangible and intangible merchandise for organizations which can be executed through agency or company. Procurement is not an event. It is a process and signifies a continuing relationship between the government and its suppliers. Procurements are always taken as an important task in the government environment and always handled in a strictly secured and controlled manner (Dunleavy, 1994). According to Nwokak, et al. (2007) procurement is also one of the sectors that remains insulated against any process improvements. At the moment, it is been recognized world over, that Information and Communication Technology (ICT) can eliminate the existing bureaucratic problems and make the governments performance more resourceful, easily reached and clear as crystal, besides being cost-effective. The procurement process in the Ministry of science and technology (www.fmst.gov.ng)is a complex process that starts and ends in a cycle. Procurement cycle starts from Raising of the requirements for an item or a service and ends only after settlement of supplier payments as shown in the diagram below. The Concept of E-Procurement Electronic Procurement can describe as purchasing order that release a communication over the internet through authorized internet seller catalogue. E-procurement is the electronic purchase of goods and services for an organization; Turban et al. (2006) from an easy phrase, electronic purchase can be described as procedure to purchase tangible and intangible merchandise by the use of internet for a company or institution. For example, within Nigeria, the majority of companies in the petroleum Industries, United Parcel Service, Plc.(Ups) Federal Express Plc (Fedex), communication industries etc are some of the few organizations that practice e-procurement in material purchase (Nwokak et al, 2009). The reason is so, because the industries have advanced and developed their technology usage of e-procurement keeping up with the changes in the business environment as it pertains to information and technology. Furthermore, electronic procurement or merchant trade is the business-to-consumer (B2C) or company-to-company (C2C) acquisition as well as trade of tangible and intangible goods by electronic means and various information and network system, like the Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) (Nwokak et al, 2009). Electronic procurement systems permit competent and valid user to search for buyer or seller of tangible as well as intangible merchandise. No matter which method, buyer or seller may as well state the outlay and request for bidding. Dealings can then be welcomed. Other Concepts in E-procurement Reverse Auction The traditional auction is a Forward Auction. It is a process through which a seller offers an item for auction, and prospective buyer competes with one another other for acquisition. By doing this, the price continue to move up upon the time nobody will be able to go up further. In the reverse auction, several dealers of a product vie for the trade of one single purchaser. In such a way the price moves downward. There are 3-4 flavours of reverse auction, called as: English Auction, Dutch auction, Sealed Bid Auction etc. How it works There is no contact or conciliation with the bidders during the auction. The Buyer also watches the progress of bidding from his office. Identities if bidders are available to him. In reverse auction competition is high; bidders get tempted to bid lower and lower to clinch the deal, until they are unwilling to go any further. At the conclusion the lowest bidder emerges as winner of the auction. Benefits To Buyers: Significant reduction in cost due to Dynamic Bidding process. Inefficiencies in the supply chain reduce. With real time competition, suppliers are on their toes It is an effective way of measuring and assessing price discovery and making the negotiation process an easy effort. Often used along with Tendering. To Vendors: Ensures Savings in marketing cost / distributor margins Facilitates flexibility in pricing decision. Transparency increases Allows vendors to assess their pricing power from close quarters of competition. E-payment Commonly available modes for effecting EMD/ Fee/ other payments electronically, from within a software Application, are: Online payment through Credit cards/ Debit cards or Direct Account Debit (using Gateway for Internet Banking) Depending on the actual need and usage constraints, the appropriate mode could be chosen and integrated into the s/w application. Credit cards could conveniently be integrated for use if the payment amounts involved are not substantial. For all other cases where payment amounts could be heavy, payments through Direct Debits from concerned accounts, using Internet Banking is the only alternative. Scope of E-procurement solution to the Ministry Purchasing of all kinds of goods and services, works etc. Types of Tenders Open, Limited, Expression of Interest Hybrid Mode of Operation Electronic and Paper Based Bid Submission (Initial Stages of Implementation) Mode of Payments (Tender Fee, EMD) e-Payment, as well as Conventional Payment Modes (DD etc.) The Importance of Procurement The purchasing of merchandise, works, and services has a main effect on the efficient execution of an assignment. To a great degree the quality, cost, and judicious achievement of a task determined on the supervision and managing of purchase of materials needed. Use of articulated policy and practice, considered by unbiased, just, and transparent measures, is vital, not only to create reliable and steady market that will be capable to catch the fancy of competent contractor and supplier, but also to uphold the paradigm of accountability and the cost-efficient use of civic treasury. The importance of procurement in delivering key aims and mission of the ministry, and as a result the procurement of merchandise, facility and services is of strategic significance to the Ministry: It has an undeviating force on the Ministrys general overheads, and price of service prerequisite to public. Can have direct effect with delivery of its services by Ministrys. Can have direct effect on the accomplishment of business, department and service mission. It provide the system to deliver key plan objective, together with sustainability, corporate work environment, egalitarianism and cost-effective improvement. It operate in multifaceted dog matic structure that should be followed. Benefits of E-Procurement to Ministry of Science and Technology. For years, improvement to purchase has been attempted, frequently by means of information technology. The concrete opportunity for development today lies in the use of e-procurement, the electronic process of obtaining goods and services for an organization Nwokak et al, (2009). They further to ascertain that by automation and reformation the thorough and arduous routine of obtain task, purchase professional will have the opportunity to pay more attention, on other tactical purchase, in order to achieve these set of objectives: Growing the efficiency of purchase agent (by giving enough period as well as decreasing the work stress) Reducing the procure price by merchandise homogeny reverse auctions, quantity price cut, and also through purchase consolidation. Getting better information stream and organization (for example supplier information and price). Reducing or elimination of the purchase through unqualified vendors, in that way eliminating nonconformist buying. Getting better the disbursement procedures and savings due to expedite disbursement (for seller) Ensure just in time delivery always Slash order-fulfilment and handling period through the use of computerization Reduce skill as well as instruction need of purchase agent. Reduce numeral figure of supplier Reformation of purchase procedure, creating it easy, better and speedy (may involve authorize) Requests to carry out purchase on their desktop, bypassing purchasing unit. Reformation of account statements and difference of opinion decision Reduce organizational handing out expenditure for each bid a s to a great extent of 90% Getting fresh supplier and vendor that will be able to provide goods and services quicker and more so, More cost effective due to better sourcing. Integrate budgetary measures in purchase procedure. Reduction or elimination of individual error in trade or transport procedure Monitor as well as regulate exchange activities. The various benefits are listed below Transactional Benefits Electronic purchase enable purchaser to process transaction through internet. For instance, an internet-base transacts means through which things can be chosen mostly from an identified catalogues and submit for authorization. The device can be connected in same direction of the backside part of ERP structure for access, imbursement of invoice, and arrangement of organization information. Electronic procedures (together with computerization of p-card purchase) lead to immense period saving as well as effectiveness owing to: universal, computerized process incorporate finest tradition as well as eliminate needless actions; electronic processing enable affiliation with supplier, which speed purchase phase period and facilitate contractor feat improvement; and better data correctness, which minimize order in accuracy as well as provide the necessary base for enhanced supervision from side to side control and scrutiny. Compliance Benefits A lot of instances in a company, conformity and unconventional expenditure is an important problem not for the reason that workers intentionally procure outside of favoured arrangements, but to a certain extent through be short of knowledge. Electronic purchases address this from side to side apparatus such as catalogues and benchmark order procedures and authorized process. Conformity will be achieved owing to: easy and speedy request-to-pay procedure together with a easy to use interface and pre-source catalogues modified to the needs of different client; easy and speedy tactical source procedure with benchmark purchase process and apparatus, without difficulty accessing information Electronic purchase structure, the only purchase method obtainable. Management Information Benefit This statement analyze the important of datas cost centre, commodity codes, etc. is hard coded in opposition to the user significantly reduce code error and provide extremely exhaustive as well as effortlessly available data. This is very important information to make the rule of the monetary revenue of tactical source. A successful e-procurement performance will give high value, complete management information and will reverse the need for data warehousing or resource heavy data mining, by David Eakin (2002). The capability to display to your supplier that you are using e-procurement as an apparatus to make sure final user do respect their union significance will augment ability to bargain along the prices through: Better improved capture and as a result, trustworthiness of expenditure information; and Better assurance that costs volume can be assured from better conformity with the structure, hence allow degree price breaks and discount to achieve. These include the capacity to improve management of business cash flow as well as control the proficient imbursement of supplier because of the further rationalized procurement procedures giving additional suitable and precise information to the accounts payable department. Possible benefit includes limited staff a hard benefit only if improvement can bring about head count decrease) and brings down expenditure on postages as well as stationeries. Throughout negotiations the procurement manager can further credibly guarantee the supplier a level of prompt payment, which was not possible prior to e-procurement. David Eakin (2002). However, the electronic invoice benefit is frequently unexamined and uncared for. Reduction in Procurement Contracts cycle time Cost Reduction Efficient streamlined Procurement Processes New Supplier Discovery Close Monitoring of Activities/ Vendor Performance Rich MIS and Analytics New Improved Image Standardized formats and Uniform tendering practices Increased visibility/ Less artificial barriers Increased business opportunities, Greater degree of transparency Cycle time reduction in participation and award of Contract Supplier Enablement and Ease of Participation For high-value items, purchasing personal in the Ministry spends most of their work period on procurement activities. These functions involve developing relationship with considered supplier, negotiating prices as well as terms, qualifying supplier, and bringing out suppliers certification as well as evaluation. When buyer is occupied in the midst of information of lesser things (especially MROs), they have less period to adequately engage in the purchase of the high value item. Other problems can happen in traditional purchase. These include delay in paying a lot for hasten order. Purchase inadequacy is nonconformist exchange, (impromptu procurements of merchandise needed hurriedly, unintentionally at non-pre-negotiated soaring price. The conventional purchase procedure, as discuss over, is therefore ineffective. In other to avoid a repeat of this event, the ministry needs to re-engineer the process of purchasing, by carrying out of new purchasing models in general, through the int roduction of electronic purchase. From this stage, we shall gaze at what e-procurement means in B2B market. The issues are summarized below: Lack of a general Public Procurement Policy. Nigeria lack up to date regulation on Public Procurement and enduring supervision and supervise purchase entity. Transparency in Procurement Act, The finance Control and Management Act, 1958, jointly with Financial policy which sets basic regulations for managing public expenses have gap, deficiency as well as defective execution of existing set of laws on procurement (for example, inadequate in the arrangement for controlling and supervision) which make opportunity for unethical behaviour. Lack of model bidding documents and contract documents -because of inflations, inadequate and regularly adjustment to threshold of the favourable limit of the Tenders Board, their approval were regularly gnarled consequential in abuse, top amongst include is split of contract. Complicated procedures for approvals, bidding and payments. There is a large number of tenders board that are alleged by the private sector as a source of delay as well as non intelligibility. Furthermore, those tenders board appear to encompass inadequate mandate amid power to choose contracted faction active through the permanent Secretary as well as Minister/ Commissioner. Inadequate skilled resources. There is no centralized system of registration of suppliers. Delays in making payments to suppliers whos Procurement are sometimes executed through staffs that substantially lack the required experience. E-government procurement is the collaborative purchase of tangible and intangible merchandise by the civic division using electronic methods at every stage ensuring transparency and efficiency. Ideally, it covers the full life cycle of procurement. The intention is to automate, possibly, the whole purchasing processes, along with tender offer submission as well as payment from supplier; in an automated computerized concurrent situation .E-procurement could resolve many of the constraints/ delays of traditional procurement. In David Eakin (2002).Summary, e-Procurement is the business-to-business buying and selling of supplies and services online. The e-procurement helps both the buyers and the suppliers to decrease the cycle time, needless paper work, waiting in long queues and at the same time maintain the simplicity in the entire process. David Eakin, (February, 2003). Which are to:- Reduce cycle times of procurement Increase supplier access to ensure wider participation Reduce costs of procurement through competitive bidding and Reverse Auctioning Remove cartelisation by supplier groups (Reverse Auctioning) enhance transparency in the procurement procedure Almost complete elimination of paperwork, for speedy and efficient functioning Inefficient function In the Ministry is because of: Lack of a general civic procurement policy Lack of consistency in enforcing procurement practice procedures Low competence labour-intensive process call for of intelligibility in procurement leading to fraud pilferage of the treasury unethical practice by suppliers Cartel creation Influence selection by bribing unit personnel Advances in electronic procurement by the use of safe internet-enabled means have not being used in an extensive method Approach to a Procurement Solution Before looking for an e-Procurement solution, a relook on existing procurement procedures/ practices is essential: As Is Analysis, Re-engineering for optimized processes Optimization/ reduction in process-flow steps Uniformity/ standardization in formats/ practices/ procedures Organization wide use of unified item-codification structure Automation of Processes Critical Determinants of a procurement Solution Good authentication Role based access Security, Secrecy (of bids) Signing, Encryption Ease of Use, Tender Templates, e-Payment integration etc. Integrated Document Management features, Good Analytics Good Audit trail/ traceability features Access for Financial Audit, Legal and RTI needs Good Archival Retrieval features/ policy Safe and secure Probing for seller so as to get and contrast supplier and product occasionally can be in reality awfully time-consuming and expensive. Most Ministries as a way out invite sellers to fulfill orders and create market place. Procurement is used to refer to the purchase of goods and services for an organization, (Martin et. al., 2001). Federal Ministry of Science and Technology (FMST) are among of the important parastatals of the Federal Government. The major term of office is providing access to technology for the Majority of Nigerian Populace. The ministry is made up of 8 (eight) departments. The Department of Administration and Supply within the Ministry is responsible for: Planning, management and entirely documenting the procedure to purchase both tangible and intangible merchandise. use of active Continuing Service Agreement for products to attain program needs; management, soliciting and contract award procedures is done prudently and unprejudiced method that is fair and treat every potential vendor and bidder; ensures that contract for good, service as well as building is planned to offer the most excellent value to government; ensures that every ministry acquisition and disposal is unswerving with guidelines, appropriate legislature as well as trade agreement; Declare products excess as soon as their utilization to the ministry has finished. The department is therefore responsible for procurement of goods and services in the Ministry. The Nature and Scope of E-Procurement According to Nwokak et al, (2009) different methods are employed to procure goods and services by companies depending on what and where they buy, the quantities needed, how much money is involved, and more. They further mentioned some important procurements method to comprise the listed below: To buy from an internal buyers catalogue in which company-approved vendors catalogues, including agreed upon prices, are aggregated. This approach is used for the implementation of desktop purchasing, which allows the requisitions to order directly from vendors, bypassing the procurement department. Buy directly from manufacturers, wholesalers, or retailers from their catalogues and possibly by negotiation. Frequently, a contract implements such a purchase. Buy from the catalogue of an intermediary (e-distributor) that aggregates sellers catalogues. Conduct biding or tendering (a reverse auction) in a system in which suppliers compete against each other. This method is used for large-ticket items or large quantities. To buy at private or public auction sites in which the organization participates as one of the buyers. Collaborate with suppliers to share information about sales and inventory, as to reduce inventory and stock -outs and enhance just-in-time delivery (Turban et al 2006). Join a group-purchasing system that aggregates participants demand, creating a large volume. Then, the group may negotiate prices or initiate a tendering process. The Procurement Process Procurement cycle starts from Raising of the requirements for an item or a service and ends only after settlement of supplier payments. By Category of Goods Services Goods Services Civil Contracts By Nature of Procurement Tenders Rate Contract Catalogue Buying Auctions, Reverse Auctions By Size / Volume of procurement High Values, low volumes Low values, High Volumes By Portfolio of services needed Requisition, Bid Process Evaluation, Award, PO Supply, Quality check, Inventory Management Payment, Accounting, Audit MIS, EIS The traditional procurement process has been widely criticized as an ineffective procurement method because it often involves time and cost overrun (Dunleavy, 1994). Yet the method is still being widely used in Nigeria most especially for the procurement in Ministry of Science and technology. Inefficiencies in Traditional Procurement Management According to Nwokak et al (2009) precisely 80% of organizations purchase item, especially for Maintenances, Repairs as well as Operating items (MROs), constitutes 20- 25 percent of the total purchasing values. Furthermore, Nwokak; OzuruUgoji (2009) affirmed that a portion of corporate buyers time is spent on non-value-added activities such data entry, correcting errors in paper work, expediting delivery or solving quality problems. For high-value items, purchasing personal spend a great deal of time and effort on procurement activities. These activities include qualifying suppliers, negotiating prices and terms, building rapport with strategic suppliers, as well as carrying out supplier evaluation and certification (Nwokak et al, 2009). If buyers are busy with details of the smaller items (usually MROs), they do not have enough time to properly deal with the purchase of the high -value items. Other inefficiencies also may occur in conventional procurement. These range from delays to paying too much for rush orders. Procurement inefficiency is maverick buying, (unplanned purchase of items needed quickly, often at non-pre-negotiated high prices. The traditional procurement process, as discussed above, often is therefore inefficient (Mills, 1996). In order to correct this situation, the ministry needs to reengineer their procurement systems, implementation of new purchasing models and in particular, introduce e-procurement. At this juncture, we will look at what e-procurement is in a B2B marketplace. Issues in Ministry Procurement Lack of a common Public Procurement Policy: Nigeria lacks a modern law on Public Procurement and Permanent oversight and monitor purchasing entities. Lack of model bidding documents and contract documents -due to inflation and lack of regular adjustments on the thresholds of the approving limits of the Tender Boards, their authorization were constantly being eroded resulting in abuses, prominent among which is splitting of contracts. Complicated procedures for bidding, approvals and payments. That there was proliferation of tender boards which were perceived by the private sector as sources of delays and non transparency. In addition, these tender boards appeared to have limited mandates with powers to decide contracts de facto resting with the permanent Secretary and the Minister/ Commissioner. Lack of skilled resources. No centralized system of registration of suppliers. Delays in making payments to suppliers that Procurement is often carried out by staff who substantially lack relevant training. Conclusion Not until June 2008 was the procurement bill recently signed into law, previously there was no Federal or state law governing the practice of public procurement in Nigeria. With the advent of the new law, a number of challenges with regards to transparency, accountability and good governance in the area of contracts and procurement of supplies and services by government. In Nigeria it is pertinent to note that e-procurement is not prominently featured in law, this project sets out to make e-procurement prominently featured. With the advent of digital technology and globalisation, Nigeria as a third world country needs to be aware of the challenges and opportunities with regards to the e-procurement process. Furthermore, this project seeks to classify the meaning as well as the benefits of the E-procurement process in Nigeria. This project will also highlight the challenges in transforming Nigeria into a transparent and corrupt-free business environment and also ways of overcoming the challenges of adopting e-procurement in Nigeria. (E-Public Procurement in Nigeria: Some Lessons from EU, 2009) Investigation of Security Issues Security E-procurement platform transacts confidential procurement data and is exposed to several security threats. Agencies world over face threats to their online e-procurement and usually desist from sending sensitive information over the Internet for security reasons. The growing number of cyber crimes has added doubts regarding the reliability of the Internet. Security measures such as authentication and encryption are therefore employed while passing sensitive information between companies. Another major issue concerning e-procurement is the type of goods that are procured through the online medium. Companies usually prefer to source smaller, inexpensive goods such as office stationery (Miller, 2006). Larger complex orders that usually take weeks or months for negotiation are done in the traditional manner but this can be addressed by employing a combination of security features and security best practices which result in reduced threat of data loss, leakage or manipulation. Security and secrecy of tender data is of paramount importance as the portal handles sensitive procurement transactions of departments and has foreseen the security concerns. Security mechanisms provide a secure communication interface, mainly for the exchange of documents between procurement authorities and Economic Operators. Standards constituting adequate and acceptable security need to be provided for the implementation of services during each stage of the procurement process. Importance of Security in e-procurement Security is one of the major factors restricting the growth of e-procurement. Without proper security measures this could lead to the loss or corruption of sensitive information on e-procurement. Security breach could also lead to fraud and financial loss, also includes misappropriation of funds and revealing of sensitive information (The Economist, 1995). This project outlines various security issues faced by e-procurement in Nigeria and possible solutions that can be implemented to reduce such risk. (NATIONAL E-PROCUREMENT PROJECT SUPPLEMENTARY GUIDANCE NOTES, 2004) The major objectives measured for the creation of a safe environment include the following: Verification: guarantees that the service is only available to users with a confirmed identity. Agreement: guarantees that authenticated users can only contact services or data matching their task and access rights. Confidentiality: guarantees that the data exchanged between the person requesting it and the provider cannot be intercepted or accessed by a third non-authorised party. honesty: guarantees that data exchanged among the person requesting it and the contributor has not been tampered with by a third non-authorised party. Non repudiation: guarantees that the sender of the message cannot reject, at a shortly point in time, that he/she sent it. Accordingly, following stringent security measures are already implemented in the system to ensure that transactions on e-procurement portal happen in the most secured manner: Physical security of Data Centre. Entry to the Data centre is with Bio metric smart cards, round the clock CCTV monitoring and under strict personal supervision of Data Centre personnel. Web security through 128 bit Secured Socket Layer (SSL) Technology from client end to server for secured passage of data. Fire walls, intrusion detection system, online virus check, up to date antivirus system, online OS patches to prevent malicious attacks. Network monitoring system to monitor the service levels of the site. Sound back up methods for storing data. Comprehensive Audit Logs of all events that are taking place on the platform. Access controls, sharing of functions between system administrator and data base administrator Third party security audit of e-procurement system. M/s. PWC has conducted security audit in pilot phase (2003) and has expressed that security is unco Designing and Implementing E-procurement Designing and Implementing E-procurement CHAPTER ONE: Background Study Overview The project is designing and implementing e-procurement on business-to-business transactions, it first identifies current procurement process and explores how to implement procurement that involves mainstay drivers and problems of e-procurement system usage and investigate the effect on the performance of the Ministry in terms of e-government and transparency in the Federal Ministry of Science and technology. The solution essentially involves in creating all the requirement details/ specs, of a tender to be floated electronically, in parameterized form; so that subsequent evaluation comparative chart preparation exercises could be automated to a large extent. The term procurement can be referred to as the buying of tangible and intangible merchandise for organizations which can be executed through agency or company. Procurement is not an event. It is a process and signifies a continuing relationship between the government and its suppliers. Procurements are always taken as an important task in the government environment and always handled in a strictly secured and controlled manner (Dunleavy, 1994). According to Nwokak, et al. (2007) procurement is also one of the sectors that remains insulated against any process improvements. At the moment, it is been recognized world over, that Information and Communication Technology (ICT) can eliminate the existing bureaucratic problems and make the governments performance more resourceful, easily reached and clear as crystal, besides being cost-effective. The procurement process in the Ministry of science and technology (www.fmst.gov.ng)is a complex process that starts and ends in a cycle. Procurement cycle starts from Raising of the requirements for an item or a service and ends only after settlement of supplier payments as shown in the diagram below. The Concept of E-Procurement Electronic Procurement can describe as purchasing order that release a communication over the internet through authorized internet seller catalogue. E-procurement is the electronic purchase of goods and services for an organization; Turban et al. (2006) from an easy phrase, electronic purchase can be described as procedure to purchase tangible and intangible merchandise by the use of internet for a company or institution. For example, within Nigeria, the majority of companies in the petroleum Industries, United Parcel Service, Plc.(Ups) Federal Express Plc (Fedex), communication industries etc are some of the few organizations that practice e-procurement in material purchase (Nwokak et al, 2009). The reason is so, because the industries have advanced and developed their technology usage of e-procurement keeping up with the changes in the business environment as it pertains to information and technology. Furthermore, electronic procurement or merchant trade is the business-to-consumer (B2C) or company-to-company (C2C) acquisition as well as trade of tangible and intangible goods by electronic means and various information and network system, like the Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) (Nwokak et al, 2009). Electronic procurement systems permit competent and valid user to search for buyer or seller of tangible as well as intangible merchandise. No matter which method, buyer or seller may as well state the outlay and request for bidding. Dealings can then be welcomed. Other Concepts in E-procurement Reverse Auction The traditional auction is a Forward Auction. It is a process through which a seller offers an item for auction, and prospective buyer competes with one another other for acquisition. By doing this, the price continue to move up upon the time nobody will be able to go up further. In the reverse auction, several dealers of a product vie for the trade of one single purchaser. In such a way the price moves downward. There are 3-4 flavours of reverse auction, called as: English Auction, Dutch auction, Sealed Bid Auction etc. How it works There is no contact or conciliation with the bidders during the auction. The Buyer also watches the progress of bidding from his office. Identities if bidders are available to him. In reverse auction competition is high; bidders get tempted to bid lower and lower to clinch the deal, until they are unwilling to go any further. At the conclusion the lowest bidder emerges as winner of the auction. Benefits To Buyers: Significant reduction in cost due to Dynamic Bidding process. Inefficiencies in the supply chain reduce. With real time competition, suppliers are on their toes It is an effective way of measuring and assessing price discovery and making the negotiation process an easy effort. Often used along with Tendering. To Vendors: Ensures Savings in marketing cost / distributor margins Facilitates flexibility in pricing decision. Transparency increases Allows vendors to assess their pricing power from close quarters of competition. E-payment Commonly available modes for effecting EMD/ Fee/ other payments electronically, from within a software Application, are: Online payment through Credit cards/ Debit cards or Direct Account Debit (using Gateway for Internet Banking) Depending on the actual need and usage constraints, the appropriate mode could be chosen and integrated into the s/w application. Credit cards could conveniently be integrated for use if the payment amounts involved are not substantial. For all other cases where payment amounts could be heavy, payments through Direct Debits from concerned accounts, using Internet Banking is the only alternative. Scope of E-procurement solution to the Ministry Purchasing of all kinds of goods and services, works etc. Types of Tenders Open, Limited, Expression of Interest Hybrid Mode of Operation Electronic and Paper Based Bid Submission (Initial Stages of Implementation) Mode of Payments (Tender Fee, EMD) e-Payment, as well as Conventional Payment Modes (DD etc.) The Importance of Procurement The purchasing of merchandise, works, and services has a main effect on the efficient execution of an assignment. To a great degree the quality, cost, and judicious achievement of a task determined on the supervision and managing of purchase of materials needed. Use of articulated policy and practice, considered by unbiased, just, and transparent measures, is vital, not only to create reliable and steady market that will be capable to catch the fancy of competent contractor and supplier, but also to uphold the paradigm of accountability and the cost-efficient use of civic treasury. The importance of procurement in delivering key aims and mission of the ministry, and as a result the procurement of merchandise, facility and services is of strategic significance to the Ministry: It has an undeviating force on the Ministrys general overheads, and price of service prerequisite to public. Can have direct effect with delivery of its services by Ministrys. Can have direct effect on the accomplishment of business, department and service mission. It provide the system to deliver key plan objective, together with sustainability, corporate work environment, egalitarianism and cost-effective improvement. It operate in multifaceted dog matic structure that should be followed. Benefits of E-Procurement to Ministry of Science and Technology. For years, improvement to purchase has been attempted, frequently by means of information technology. The concrete opportunity for development today lies in the use of e-procurement, the electronic process of obtaining goods and services for an organization Nwokak et al, (2009). They further to ascertain that by automation and reformation the thorough and arduous routine of obtain task, purchase professional will have the opportunity to pay more attention, on other tactical purchase, in order to achieve these set of objectives: Growing the efficiency of purchase agent (by giving enough period as well as decreasing the work stress) Reducing the procure price by merchandise homogeny reverse auctions, quantity price cut, and also through purchase consolidation. Getting better information stream and organization (for example supplier information and price). Reducing or elimination of the purchase through unqualified vendors, in that way eliminating nonconformist buying. Getting better the disbursement procedures and savings due to expedite disbursement (for seller) Ensure just in time delivery always Slash order-fulfilment and handling period through the use of computerization Reduce skill as well as instruction need of purchase agent. Reduce numeral figure of supplier Reformation of purchase procedure, creating it easy, better and speedy (may involve authorize) Requests to carry out purchase on their desktop, bypassing purchasing unit. Reformation of account statements and difference of opinion decision Reduce organizational handing out expenditure for each bid a s to a great extent of 90% Getting fresh supplier and vendor that will be able to provide goods and services quicker and more so, More cost effective due to better sourcing. Integrate budgetary measures in purchase procedure. Reduction or elimination of individual error in trade or transport procedure Monitor as well as regulate exchange activities. The various benefits are listed below Transactional Benefits Electronic purchase enable purchaser to process transaction through internet. For instance, an internet-base transacts means through which things can be chosen mostly from an identified catalogues and submit for authorization. The device can be connected in same direction of the backside part of ERP structure for access, imbursement of invoice, and arrangement of organization information. Electronic procedures (together with computerization of p-card purchase) lead to immense period saving as well as effectiveness owing to: universal, computerized process incorporate finest tradition as well as eliminate needless actions; electronic processing enable affiliation with supplier, which speed purchase phase period and facilitate contractor feat improvement; and better data correctness, which minimize order in accuracy as well as provide the necessary base for enhanced supervision from side to side control and scrutiny. Compliance Benefits A lot of instances in a company, conformity and unconventional expenditure is an important problem not for the reason that workers intentionally procure outside of favoured arrangements, but to a certain extent through be short of knowledge. Electronic purchases address this from side to side apparatus such as catalogues and benchmark order procedures and authorized process. Conformity will be achieved owing to: easy and speedy request-to-pay procedure together with a easy to use interface and pre-source catalogues modified to the needs of different client; easy and speedy tactical source procedure with benchmark purchase process and apparatus, without difficulty accessing information Electronic purchase structure, the only purchase method obtainable. Management Information Benefit This statement analyze the important of datas cost centre, commodity codes, etc. is hard coded in opposition to the user significantly reduce code error and provide extremely exhaustive as well as effortlessly available data. This is very important information to make the rule of the monetary revenue of tactical source. A successful e-procurement performance will give high value, complete management information and will reverse the need for data warehousing or resource heavy data mining, by David Eakin (2002). The capability to display to your supplier that you are using e-procurement as an apparatus to make sure final user do respect their union significance will augment ability to bargain along the prices through: Better improved capture and as a result, trustworthiness of expenditure information; and Better assurance that costs volume can be assured from better conformity with the structure, hence allow degree price breaks and discount to achieve. These include the capacity to improve management of business cash flow as well as control the proficient imbursement of supplier because of the further rationalized procurement procedures giving additional suitable and precise information to the accounts payable department. Possible benefit includes limited staff a hard benefit only if improvement can bring about head count decrease) and brings down expenditure on postages as well as stationeries. Throughout negotiations the procurement manager can further credibly guarantee the supplier a level of prompt payment, which was not possible prior to e-procurement. David Eakin (2002). However, the electronic invoice benefit is frequently unexamined and uncared for. Reduction in Procurement Contracts cycle time Cost Reduction Efficient streamlined Procurement Processes New Supplier Discovery Close Monitoring of Activities/ Vendor Performance Rich MIS and Analytics New Improved Image Standardized formats and Uniform tendering practices Increased visibility/ Less artificial barriers Increased business opportunities, Greater degree of transparency Cycle time reduction in participation and award of Contract Supplier Enablement and Ease of Participation For high-value items, purchasing personal in the Ministry spends most of their work period on procurement activities. These functions involve developing relationship with considered supplier, negotiating prices as well as terms, qualifying supplier, and bringing out suppliers certification as well as evaluation. When buyer is occupied in the midst of information of lesser things (especially MROs), they have less period to adequately engage in the purchase of the high value item. Other problems can happen in traditional purchase. These include delay in paying a lot for hasten order. Purchase inadequacy is nonconformist exchange, (impromptu procurements of merchandise needed hurriedly, unintentionally at non-pre-negotiated soaring price. The conventional purchase procedure, as discuss over, is therefore ineffective. In other to avoid a repeat of this event, the ministry needs to re-engineer the process of purchasing, by carrying out of new purchasing models in general, through the int roduction of electronic purchase. From this stage, we shall gaze at what e-procurement means in B2B market. The issues are summarized below: Lack of a general Public Procurement Policy. Nigeria lack up to date regulation on Public Procurement and enduring supervision and supervise purchase entity. Transparency in Procurement Act, The finance Control and Management Act, 1958, jointly with Financial policy which sets basic regulations for managing public expenses have gap, deficiency as well as defective execution of existing set of laws on procurement (for example, inadequate in the arrangement for controlling and supervision) which make opportunity for unethical behaviour. Lack of model bidding documents and contract documents -because of inflations, inadequate and regularly adjustment to threshold of the favourable limit of the Tenders Board, their approval were regularly gnarled consequential in abuse, top amongst include is split of contract. Complicated procedures for approvals, bidding and payments. There is a large number of tenders board that are alleged by the private sector as a source of delay as well as non intelligibility. Furthermore, those tenders board appear to encompass inadequate mandate amid power to choose contracted faction active through the permanent Secretary as well as Minister/ Commissioner. Inadequate skilled resources. There is no centralized system of registration of suppliers. Delays in making payments to suppliers whos Procurement are sometimes executed through staffs that substantially lack the required experience. E-government procurement is the collaborative purchase of tangible and intangible merchandise by the civic division using electronic methods at every stage ensuring transparency and efficiency. Ideally, it covers the full life cycle of procurement. The intention is to automate, possibly, the whole purchasing processes, along with tender offer submission as well as payment from supplier; in an automated computerized concurrent situation .E-procurement could resolve many of the constraints/ delays of traditional procurement. In David Eakin (2002).Summary, e-Procurement is the business-to-business buying and selling of supplies and services online. The e-procurement helps both the buyers and the suppliers to decrease the cycle time, needless paper work, waiting in long queues and at the same time maintain the simplicity in the entire process. David Eakin, (February, 2003). Which are to:- Reduce cycle times of procurement Increase supplier access to ensure wider participation Reduce costs of procurement through competitive bidding and Reverse Auctioning Remove cartelisation by supplier groups (Reverse Auctioning) enhance transparency in the procurement procedure Almost complete elimination of paperwork, for speedy and efficient functioning Inefficient function In the Ministry is because of: Lack of a general civic procurement policy Lack of consistency in enforcing procurement practice procedures Low competence labour-intensive process call for of intelligibility in procurement leading to fraud pilferage of the treasury unethical practice by suppliers Cartel creation Influence selection by bribing unit personnel Advances in electronic procurement by the use of safe internet-enabled means have not being used in an extensive method Approach to a Procurement Solution Before looking for an e-Procurement solution, a relook on existing procurement procedures/ practices is essential: As Is Analysis, Re-engineering for optimized processes Optimization/ reduction in process-flow steps Uniformity/ standardization in formats/ practices/ procedures Organization wide use of unified item-codification structure Automation of Processes Critical Determinants of a procurement Solution Good authentication Role based access Security, Secrecy (of bids) Signing, Encryption Ease of Use, Tender Templates, e-Payment integration etc. Integrated Document Management features, Good Analytics Good Audit trail/ traceability features Access for Financial Audit, Legal and RTI needs Good Archival Retrieval features/ policy Safe and secure Probing for seller so as to get and contrast supplier and product occasionally can be in reality awfully time-consuming and expensive. Most Ministries as a way out invite sellers to fulfill orders and create market place. Procurement is used to refer to the purchase of goods and services for an organization, (Martin et. al., 2001). Federal Ministry of Science and Technology (FMST) are among of the important parastatals of the Federal Government. The major term of office is providing access to technology for the Majority of Nigerian Populace. The ministry is made up of 8 (eight) departments. The Department of Administration and Supply within the Ministry is responsible for: Planning, management and entirely documenting the procedure to purchase both tangible and intangible merchandise. use of active Continuing Service Agreement for products to attain program needs; management, soliciting and contract award procedures is done prudently and unprejudiced method that is fair and treat every potential vendor and bidder; ensures that contract for good, service as well as building is planned to offer the most excellent value to government; ensures that every ministry acquisition and disposal is unswerving with guidelines, appropriate legislature as well as trade agreement; Declare products excess as soon as their utilization to the ministry has finished. The department is therefore responsible for procurement of goods and services in the Ministry. The Nature and Scope of E-Procurement According to Nwokak et al, (2009) different methods are employed to procure goods and services by companies depending on what and where they buy, the quantities needed, how much money is involved, and more. They further mentioned some important procurements method to comprise the listed below: To buy from an internal buyers catalogue in which company-approved vendors catalogues, including agreed upon prices, are aggregated. This approach is used for the implementation of desktop purchasing, which allows the requisitions to order directly from vendors, bypassing the procurement department. Buy directly from manufacturers, wholesalers, or retailers from their catalogues and possibly by negotiation. Frequently, a contract implements such a purchase. Buy from the catalogue of an intermediary (e-distributor) that aggregates sellers catalogues. Conduct biding or tendering (a reverse auction) in a system in which suppliers compete against each other. This method is used for large-ticket items or large quantities. To buy at private or public auction sites in which the organization participates as one of the buyers. Collaborate with suppliers to share information about sales and inventory, as to reduce inventory and stock -outs and enhance just-in-time delivery (Turban et al 2006). Join a group-purchasing system that aggregates participants demand, creating a large volume. Then, the group may negotiate prices or initiate a tendering process. The Procurement Process Procurement cycle starts from Raising of the requirements for an item or a service and ends only after settlement of supplier payments. By Category of Goods Services Goods Services Civil Contracts By Nature of Procurement Tenders Rate Contract Catalogue Buying Auctions, Reverse Auctions By Size / Volume of procurement High Values, low volumes Low values, High Volumes By Portfolio of services needed Requisition, Bid Process Evaluation, Award, PO Supply, Quality check, Inventory Management Payment, Accounting, Audit MIS, EIS The traditional procurement process has been widely criticized as an ineffective procurement method because it often involves time and cost overrun (Dunleavy, 1994). Yet the method is still being widely used in Nigeria most especially for the procurement in Ministry of Science and technology. Inefficiencies in Traditional Procurement Management According to Nwokak et al (2009) precisely 80% of organizations purchase item, especially for Maintenances, Repairs as well as Operating items (MROs), constitutes 20- 25 percent of the total purchasing values. Furthermore, Nwokak; OzuruUgoji (2009) affirmed that a portion of corporate buyers time is spent on non-value-added activities such data entry, correcting errors in paper work, expediting delivery or solving quality problems. For high-value items, purchasing personal spend a great deal of time and effort on procurement activities. These activities include qualifying suppliers, negotiating prices and terms, building rapport with strategic suppliers, as well as carrying out supplier evaluation and certification (Nwokak et al, 2009). If buyers are busy with details of the smaller items (usually MROs), they do not have enough time to properly deal with the purchase of the high -value items. Other inefficiencies also may occur in conventional procurement. These range from delays to paying too much for rush orders. Procurement inefficiency is maverick buying, (unplanned purchase of items needed quickly, often at non-pre-negotiated high prices. The traditional procurement process, as discussed above, often is therefore inefficient (Mills, 1996). In order to correct this situation, the ministry needs to reengineer their procurement systems, implementation of new purchasing models and in particular, introduce e-procurement. At this juncture, we will look at what e-procurement is in a B2B marketplace. Issues in Ministry Procurement Lack of a common Public Procurement Policy: Nigeria lacks a modern law on Public Procurement and Permanent oversight and monitor purchasing entities. Lack of model bidding documents and contract documents -due to inflation and lack of regular adjustments on the thresholds of the approving limits of the Tender Boards, their authorization were constantly being eroded resulting in abuses, prominent among which is splitting of contracts. Complicated procedures for bidding, approvals and payments. That there was proliferation of tender boards which were perceived by the private sector as sources of delays and non transparency. In addition, these tender boards appeared to have limited mandates with powers to decide contracts de facto resting with the permanent Secretary and the Minister/ Commissioner. Lack of skilled resources. No centralized system of registration of suppliers. Delays in making payments to suppliers that Procurement is often carried out by staff who substantially lack relevant training. Conclusion Not until June 2008 was the procurement bill recently signed into law, previously there was no Federal or state law governing the practice of public procurement in Nigeria. With the advent of the new law, a number of challenges with regards to transparency, accountability and good governance in the area of contracts and procurement of supplies and services by government. In Nigeria it is pertinent to note that e-procurement is not prominently featured in law, this project sets out to make e-procurement prominently featured. With the advent of digital technology and globalisation, Nigeria as a third world country needs to be aware of the challenges and opportunities with regards to the e-procurement process. Furthermore, this project seeks to classify the meaning as well as the benefits of the E-procurement process in Nigeria. This project will also highlight the challenges in transforming Nigeria into a transparent and corrupt-free business environment and also ways of overcoming the challenges of adopting e-procurement in Nigeria. (E-Public Procurement in Nigeria: Some Lessons from EU, 2009) Investigation of Security Issues Security E-procurement platform transacts confidential procurement data and is exposed to several security threats. Agencies world over face threats to their online e-procurement and usually desist from sending sensitive information over the Internet for security reasons. The growing number of cyber crimes has added doubts regarding the reliability of the Internet. Security measures such as authentication and encryption are therefore employed while passing sensitive information between companies. Another major issue concerning e-procurement is the type of goods that are procured through the online medium. Companies usually prefer to source smaller, inexpensive goods such as office stationery (Miller, 2006). Larger complex orders that usually take weeks or months for negotiation are done in the traditional manner but this can be addressed by employing a combination of security features and security best practices which result in reduced threat of data loss, leakage or manipulation. Security and secrecy of tender data is of paramount importance as the portal handles sensitive procurement transactions of departments and has foreseen the security concerns. Security mechanisms provide a secure communication interface, mainly for the exchange of documents between procurement authorities and Economic Operators. Standards constituting adequate and acceptable security need to be provided for the implementation of services during each stage of the procurement process. Importance of Security in e-procurement Security is one of the major factors restricting the growth of e-procurement. Without proper security measures this could lead to the loss or corruption of sensitive information on e-procurement. Security breach could also lead to fraud and financial loss, also includes misappropriation of funds and revealing of sensitive information (The Economist, 1995). This project outlines various security issues faced by e-procurement in Nigeria and possible solutions that can be implemented to reduce such risk. (NATIONAL E-PROCUREMENT PROJECT SUPPLEMENTARY GUIDANCE NOTES, 2004) The major objectives measured for the creation of a safe environment include the following: Verification: guarantees that the service is only available to users with a confirmed identity. Agreement: guarantees that authenticated users can only contact services or data matching their task and access rights. Confidentiality: guarantees that the data exchanged between the person requesting it and the provider cannot be intercepted or accessed by a third non-authorised party. honesty: guarantees that data exchanged among the person requesting it and the contributor has not been tampered with by a third non-authorised party. Non repudiation: guarantees that the sender of the message cannot reject, at a shortly point in time, that he/she sent it. Accordingly, following stringent security measures are already implemented in the system to ensure that transactions on e-procurement portal happen in the most secured manner: Physical security of Data Centre. Entry to the Data centre is with Bio metric smart cards, round the clock CCTV monitoring and under strict personal supervision of Data Centre personnel. Web security through 128 bit Secured Socket Layer (SSL) Technology from client end to server for secured passage of data. Fire walls, intrusion detection system, online virus check, up to date antivirus system, online OS patches to prevent malicious attacks. Network monitoring system to monitor the service levels of the site. Sound back up methods for storing data. Comprehensive Audit Logs of all events that are taking place on the platform. Access controls, sharing of functions between system administrator and data base administrator Third party security audit of e-procurement system. M/s. PWC has conducted security audit in pilot phase (2003) and has expressed that security is unco

Thursday, September 19, 2019

Industrial Revolution as a Time of Change Essay -- Industrial Revoluti

Industrial Revolution as a Time of Change The Industrial Revolution was a time of drastic change that transformed hand tools and hand made items to machine manufactured and produced goods. Inventions brought on the most drastic changes during the Industrial Revolution. Machines made life much easier while decreasing prices of goods and generally improving life. (mhirotsu.htm). Before the 1750's, life was primitive but simple, which is vastly different from the complex culture that arose from the Industrial Revolution. Before the first Industrial Revolution, England's economy was based upon its cottage industry. The workers would purchase raw materials from merchants, take them back to their cottages, and at home is where the goods were produced. This was usually owned and managed by one or few people. This industry was efficient, but due to the fact that productivity was low, it make the prices high. The longer the it took to create the product, the higher the cost. Goods were expensive, and in turn only wealthy people could afford them. (mhirotsu.htm). The Industrial Revolution was based mainly upon the Cotton Industry , for most of the inventions created during that period were mainly for making and producing cotton. "In the year 1773, there was a high demand for cotton cloth, but the production was low" (mhirtostu.htm). This problem needed to be solved. The solution came from John Kay, a British weaver, who invented and fashioned the flying shuttle, which cut weaving time in half. John Kay was also a pioneer, and his new invention paved the way for many more inventors. At first, workers did not accept the machines, and in numerous cases many inventions were destroyed, but the inevitable was unst... ... brought on many new adjustments in peoples lives. The factory system was a reliable way to lower prices on goods, but the quality of the worker's lives declined. Women and children were required to work long, hard hours, and as a result, many people became sick and developed diseases. With time, the workers became aware of their potential rights, many got together to form Labor Unions. Different groups gave rights to workers and gave them the power to strike. "As more and more laws were enforced regarding the working schedule, working conditions improved and the factory system began to blossom" (change.html). Throughout the Industrial Revolution, many new inventions and machines were created and many advances were made. The revolution was a massive turning point in history, and from then on, tremendous progress evolved creating the society we live in today.

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

Domination Of North America :: American History

During the late 1600s and the to the mid-1700s, countries fought for land and power in order to have global domination. While several countries fought for the same cause, resolving their differences was nearly impossible, and this often led to more wars and conflicts. One of the many conflicts concerned the domination of North America. While many European powers competed for control of North America, Britain gained the most territory through the four French and Indian wars, King William's War, Queen Anne's War, King George's War, and the French and Indian War. As these wars progressed, Britain achieved the most success and eventually became the most dominant power in North America. King William's War, which occurred from between 1689 to 1697, was the first of a series of colonial conflicts between France and England for supremacy in North America. It started when King William III of England allied himself with the League of Augsburg; certain German states, Spain, Sweden, Austria, and the Netherlands,; to oppose French expansion. In America, King William ¡Ã‚ ¯s War, or otherwise called The War of the Grand Alliance or the War of the League of Augsburg, was fought between the English and its Indian allies and the French and its Indian allies. The first major conflict occurred on February 9, 1690 when the French and Indian forces from Montreal attacked and burned Schenectady, New York. The English responded by the seizure of Port Royal on May 11, 1690. However, it was recaptured a year later by the French. The city of Quebec was also attacked by English forces in their first major military operation of King William's War, but they were obstructed by the F rench troops. The war ceased in a stalemate and officially ended with the Treaty of Ryswick, which ended the fighting in America and Europe, and returned all colonial possessions to their prewar status. After a brief season of peace, the colonists were obliged to face another long and murderous war. Queen Anne's War was the second in a series of four wars fought between France and Great Britain in North America for control of the continent. It was part of the War of the Spanish Succession in Europe and it occurred between 1702 and 1713. In February, 1704 at daybreak, a party of nearly four hundred French and Indians attacked New England from Canada and broke upon the town of Deerfield, Massachusetts.